Duck
From Poultry Hub
Since domestication, some 4000 years ago, ducks have been used for their meat, eggs and feathers. Today, duck products are still very popular and remain in strong demand, particularly in Asia. In Australia the duck industry is an important new industry valued at $41 million per annum. Production is increasing rapidly, fueled by a dramatic increase in the demand for duck meat.
Globally, Australia is very young in terms of the history of duck as a commercial enterprise. It is only over the past 30 years that the duck industry in Australia has really grown, with two main companies, Pepe’s Ducks and Luv-a-Duck. Thes companies have capitalised on improvements in duck growth fueled by research in Europe and North America and adapting it to suit Australian conditions.
Pepe’s Ducks Pty Ltd has two different types of Peking duck; the Grimaud duck (French) and the Cherry Valley duck (English); both world leaders in terms of duck genetics. They have 4 strategically placed breeder farms and 2 hatcheries supplying 21 growing farms.
Contents |
Breeds
The Pekin duck (Anas Domesticus)has a large body, orange feet and beak and creamy white feathers. It was developed as a breed in China during the time of the Mongols. The Pekin duck is the preferred breed for commercial meat production in Australia, primarily due to its rapid growth rates. Overseas, Pekin ducks have achieved weights of up to 3.2 kg by 6 weeks of age, but in Australia the production figures are much lower and producers generally try to achieve the marketable weight of 2.85 kg in 6 weeks. It is considered to be a multi-purpose breed because it also has a high level of egg production. A further advantage is that it does not exhibit the broody behaviour, which is apparent in some of the other breeds.
The Muscovy duck(Cairina moschata) originates from South America and is the only domesticated breed not derived from the Mallard. In reality Muscovies are not true ducks and are actually genetically more similar to geese than ducks. Features that distinguish the Muscovy include its bare face and the red caruncles positioned around the eyes and beak. It was once a popular breed for Australian production, but in many cases it has been replaced by the faster growing and more easily managed Pekin duck. The early development of the Muscovy is quite slow and it generally takes 10-11 weeks to achieve market weight.
There is a considerable difference between the growth rates of the sexes and males can be up to 45% heavier than females when they reach market weight. The difference between male and female growth rates makes single sex rearing a necessity because the sexes require separate processing. Additionally, the males in mixed sex pens can have negative effects on female growth rates through competition for food. Other disadvantages of Muscovies include a low rate of egg production and their broodiness at lay. Despite its disadvantages, the breed is still used in production because its meat is leaner than that other breeds and this provides a considerable marketing advantage in health conscious societies such as Australia. Often Muscovies are crossed with other breeds to produce Mule ducks, which have characteristics of both.
Indian Runners (Anas platyrhynchos) are used for their prolific egg producing ability. They are capable of producing 365 eggs in a year. The breed originates from Asia and can be identified by its tall, upright stance.
Khaki Campbells (Anas platyrhynchos) are predominately used for egg production, but are also good meat birds. The most distinguishing feature of this breed is its khaki colouration. The breed was developed in England in the early 19th century by crossing the Indian Runner with the Rouen. Khaki Campbells may produce up to 344 eggs in a year.
Mule (or Mulard) ducks (Anas platyrhynchos x Cairina moschata) are produced from the crossing of Muscovy ducks with common ducks. They are sterile hybrids, bred predominately for meat and fat liver production. The lean meat typical of Mule ducks is desirable in health conscious societies.
Cooking
Preferences with regard to breed of duck and method of preparation vary widely. In Australia and other westernised countries roasted, braised or barbecued duck appears as a popular dish in fine restaurants. Duck meat can be described as dark, tender meat with a mild flavour while the breast muscle is lighter and has a milder flavour than the leg muscles. More recently duck cuts, such as breast and legs destine for home preparation have become available in supermarkets. The majority of the worlds duck production occurs in Asia, where it is plays a more substantial role in the diet, often providing an important source of protein.
Peking Duck
Peking duck is often confused with Pekin duck. Pekin duck is a breed of duck, whereas Peking duck refers to a dish prepared in many Chinese restaurants. To make Peking duck air is pumped between the skin and the flesh prior to cooking. The duck is then roasted until it is crisp on the outside and succulent on the inside. The skin and meat are served separately. The meat is served with hoisin sauce and rolled with scallions in thin pancakes.
Processing
In Australia 95% of the meat ducks produced are destined for domestic consumption. The Asian restaurant market for whole birds is the main market, but there is also growing demand from fine restaurants and for specialized cuts in supermarkets. Ducks destine for the whole duck market are grown to a liveweight of 2.85kg. Under commercial conditions in Australia this takes approximately 6 to 7 weeks.
The processing of the duck is similar to that of chicken, except for the waxing of the duck during process for the removal of the fine feathers. After the ducks are processed they are distributed throughout Australia. The biggest challenge within the duck industry is ensuring that all duck farmers and processors, large or small, have the correct biosecurity programme in place.
Genetic selection and growth
As with the majority of waterfowl species bodyweight in ducks has a fairly high heritability. The selection for greater bodyweights at market age has been the basis of traditional breeding programs and has resulted in a considerable increase in growth rates. However, the selection for faster growth rates means that birds are slaughtered at an earlier age. The disadvantage associated with slaughtering ducks at an early age is that it reduces the proportion of breast muscle on the carcass, and breast muscle is the most valuable product from a meat duck. Younger ducks have a lower proportion of carcass breast muscle than older ducks because protein deposition occurs at a late stage in carcass development. Reducing the proportion of breast muscle conflicts significantly with what is demanded by the consumers. Consumers desire a small carcass with a high proportion of breast muscle. This represents a dichotomy for the meat duck industry, which seeks to increase output through higher growth rates, but at the same time wishes to produce a product that is consistent with consumer demand.
Predicting the age at which ducks will reach market weight is necessary for maintaining high utilization rates at the processing plants and satisfying market demand. Numerous factors affect growth and the limited knowledge available on duck production in Australia make predicting growth rates a particularly challenging task. One method of predicting weights at a given point in time is through the use of the Gompertz equation, which has been developed for use in many species of poultry. The coefficients that describe the growth curve differ according to species, strain and sex.
Housing and Management
The type of management system depends on a variety of factors such as the availability of funding, labour and technology and also the market for which the ducks are destined. The majority of Asian farms raise ducks on open ponds. These ponds can be constructed without large capital costs and income is often supplemented through the harvesting of aquatic species such as tilapia from the ponds. Furthermore feed costs are reduced because the ducks diet is supplemented with aquatic life in the pond. Another low capital management system used in developing countries is duck herding. Duck herding allows ducks to use their natural foraging skills to acquire food from the environment during the day under the watch of a herdsman. At night they are returned to a shelter, where they lay eggs, which are collected the following day. In developed countries companies can afford sheds in which the environment may be manipulated to suit optimum production. The high degree of control is also necessary to meet the high quality standards that are expected by the consumers.
Litter management
Duck farming requires a lot more attention to detail than other poultry. The litter conditions are of prime importance, as well as plenty of water, along with appropriate feed. As with all poultry the greatest importance is the biosecurity of the farm. Biosecurity is the key to our future, and if Australia can prove globally that we have a clean environment from exotic poultry diseases it will help in assisting the growth through export. All farms have a strong emphasis on biosecurity.
Reproduction Organs and incubation
The copulatory organs of ducks, as with all waterbirds, is significantly more pronounced than in gallinaceous birds. The phallus-like folds of the drake extend out from the cloaca. Despite the anatomical similarity to the mammalian penis, the function of this organ is similar to gallinaceous birds because semen is transported extenally via an open groove that spirals down the length of the protruding organ.
Pekin Ducks are incubated for 28 days. During the first 25 days they are maintained at a temperature of 37.5 degrees Celsius at 86% humidity and turned up to 7 times a day. For the final 3 days the temperature is dropped to 36.9 degrees Celsius, the humidity is increased to 94% and the eggs are no longer rotated. Due to artificial selection against broodiness, Pekin ducks will not sit on their eggs. Therefore, artificial incubation is necessary.
Duck Eggs and hatchlings
Ducks begin lay at approximately 21 weeks of age, which is similar to that of chickens. A typical chicken egg weighs 65 grams, whereas a Pekin duck is capable of producing an egg that weighs over 90 grams. The egg consists of approximately 50% albumin, 35% yolk and 15% shell. Duck eggs are rich in vitamins and are a particularly good source for vitamins A and D. The only vitamin not present in duck eggs is vitamin C. Duck eggs are also high in cholesterol, containing nearly twice the concentration of chicken eggs. Different nutrient components in the feed may be used to manipulate the nutrient composition of the eggs.
Hatchlings are particularly vulnerable to temperature stress due to their small body size, which means that they are unable to adequately thermoregulate. The absence of a mother duck in commercial rearing necessitates the use of thermal heat lamps. Monitoring the ducklings during the first few days post hatch is essential. It is possible to determine whether the ducklings are suffering heat stress from their behaviour in the pen. If the temperature is too hot they will be spread around the outsides of the pen, away from the brooding lamp. Ducklings will also pant and make high pitch chirping noises if they are hot. If the temperature is too cold, they will be huddle together in a group under the brooding lamp. Ducklings should be restricted from swimming because the feathering required for them to remain buoyant is incomplete.
Sexing
In the chicken industry, males and females may be separated at an early age through feather sexing, but this technique cannot be applied to ducklings. Therefore, if sexing is required it must be conducted using the vent sexing method. This method requires handlers to visually inspect the internal genitalia of the ducklings, to determine whether they are males or females. The method is invasive and the stress associated with this technique often causes increased duckling mortality. At an older age, male ducks may be identified as having a curled tail further and weak and muffled quack, compared with the loud quack produced from the female. The additional labour required for identifying sexes through this method, makes it unviable in commercial situations. Where breeds such as Pekin ducks are used, the small size differentiation between sexes at market weight means that the stressful procedure of sexing may be avoided by raising males and female together in mixed sex pens.
Handling
In the wild ducks are waterbirds and for this reason their legs and feet have not been developed for bearing weight. Picking ducks up by the legs may dislocate joints or break bones. The preferred method for handling ducks is to pick them up by their necks or by placing supporting the undercarriage of the duck with ones arm, holding the legs between the fingers.
Disease
Ducks are relatively resistant to disease, but they have been known to carry diseases that are infectious to other types of poultry. For this reason ducks are usually produced on sites away from other poultry production. The main diseases encountered in duck production are non-infectious diseases that are a result of the intensive breeding programs aimed at increasing production. Leg disorders are a common problem for a multiple reasons. The breeding for larger birds means that there is more weight being placed on the legs and because ducks are waterbirds their anatomy is more designed for propulsion through water than bearing weight on land. Furthermore, the breeding for earlier muscle development does not coincide with earlier skeletal development and as a result the legs of young birds are often not developed sufficiently to support their heavy bodies. The cage flooring may also contribute to leg disorders if they are kept on cement or wire mesh. Ideally clean saw dust should be provided for the flooring. Leg disorders include fractured, broken bones and foot sores.
Ascites is another disease encountered as a result of intensive breeding for higher growth rates. Ascites occurs because the growth of the heart and lungs are disproportional to the development of the duck and in fast growing breeds these organs are unable to supply the body’s cells with the high oxygen requirement as a result of accelerated metabolic rates.
Duck Nutrition
Ducks require the same nutrients as chickens, but in different ratios. Ducks perform optimally on high energy diets, but unlike chickens they also exhibit adequate growth on low energy diets. The decision of whether to use a high energy or low energy diet depends on the cost and availability of feed ingredients. Protein is required in the diet so it can be broken down into the essential amino acids that are required for muscle and feather production. Generally ducks will be provided with a starter ration for the first 2 weeks and then provided with a grower/finisher ration for the remainder of their growth. The starter ration is usually provided as a crumble and the grower/finisher ration is provided as a pellet.
Further Information
- British Poultry Standards, D. Hawksworth. Butterworths, England,1982
- Poultry Breeding and Genetics, R. D. Crawford. Elsevier, USA, 1990
